1.
Introduction
Educators and educational technologists (e.g.
Baynton 2001, Rosenberg 2001, Higgins 2002, Burns et al 2001, and
Dobbs 2000) argue that learning practices are on the verge of a major
change. Today, the knowledge and skills that we acquire are in danger
of becoming increasingly obsolete, which in turn requires us to learn
on an ongoing basis. Most traditional approaches (to learning) seem to
be no longer adequate in responding to the new challenges with regards
to the need for increased efficiency (and effectiveness) in
developing, acquiring or disseminating knowledge. The solution (in
most cases) seems to have been provided through the application of
Information and Communications Technology (ICT).
Over the past few years rapid advancements in ICT
have contributed towards a staggering growth in global computer
networking and the emergence of a globally connected world. The
Internet has evolved from being a network for researchers and
academics into a platform that has enabled new businesses to find
alternative ways in which to offer their products and services. We
have witnessed a paradigm shift in the ways in which the transfer and
management of knowledge is handled. The Internet and Web-based
technologies have both had a profound effect on the way(s) in which
educational and training institutions now operate - in that it has
made it possible for many innovative educators/trainers (within ICT
enabled nations) to think of new ways in which to use the Internet in
order to provide Web-based knowledge management and training
opportunities.
There appears to be significant optimism amongst
technologists and strategic planners for knowledge management. They
view global networking and Web-based solutions as catalysts for
addressing today’s challenges of knowledge management and digital
learning. This has become evident with an increasing number of
tertiary educational institutions and industry based training
organisations attempting to offer a wide variety of Web-based (online)
learning solutions. These institutions have adopted a variety of
strategies - some have considered Web-assisted solutions as a
supplement to face-to-face communication between students and
educators/trainers, whilst others have used Web-based learning through
the Internet as the sole medium for delivery.
A review of e-Learning and KM cases (e.g. various
cases in online learning in the Training Magazine, Asgarkhani 2003,
Kiser 2001, Montanden 2002 and Rossett 2002) suggests that most
tertiary educational institutions and professional training
organizations (within ICT enabled and globally networked countries)
acknowledge (to some extent) the strategic importance of using
technology-based education and learning through Web-based
applications. They seem to view e-Learning as being a fundamental and
positive shift in the academic and professional knowledge management
world. Yet there is also a danger. If we focus too much on the
technology aspect of e-Learning and less on broader issues and/or
strategies, we are unlikely to be able to deliver futuristic solutions
of a high quality. On the whole, some electronically delivered
programs/courses appear to have been developed and implemented in a
somewhat reactive manner, and in isolation - more specifically,
without much thought being given as to strategic implications; global
developments; cultural issues; digital divide and the complexity of
today’s knowledge management systems. As a result, some of these
solutions have proved incapable of meeting the expectations of their
potential markets (students/trainees). Considering the significance of
knowledge management and ongoing learning in today’s environment, the
development of knowledge management systems and electronic learning
solutions needs to be based upon a strategic foundation.
2.
The evolution of digital or electronic
learning
e-Learning has been defined in many different ways.
The historical background of e-Learning can
be observed over three decades of development in ICT based education
(and training).
Various technologies (including ICT) that have been
introduced throughout the past few decades (in order to facilitate
learning) include:
§
Film
§
Advanced TV technologies and video tapes
§
Mainframe computer based “teaching machines”
§
Early microcomputers as a basis for Computer Based
Training (CBT)
§
Touch screens and interactive videodisks based on
“InfoWindows” hardware technology
§
Power PCs, CDs and VCDs
§
Global networking advancements and web-based
solutions
Overall, universities in the US and the army appear
to have played a pioneering role in the application of technology and
developments which has eventually led to digital delivery of learning
solutions.
Today, the e-Learning industry is diverse. Numerous
universities have developed profit orientated e-universities offering
courses and degree programs.
It should be noted that the e-Learning industry
also includes organizations that support the establishment of learning
infrastructures and networks for higher education institutions and
corporations – such as course management and delivery tools from
Blackboard and WebCT that allow customers to create learning programs
directly on the Web without investing in their own tools or
infrastructure.
In this paper, digital learning (or e-Learning)
refers to the use of Web-based technologies (and applications) in
order to deliver a broad range of learning solutions - whereby learning
materials can be accessed from the web or intranet via a computer and
educators/trainers can communicate with each other using e-mail, chat
or discussion forums. e-Learning can be used as the main method of
delivery of education/training or as a combined approach with
face-to-face classroom-based teaching.
Some of the key characteristics of e-Learning
solutions (Rosenberg 2001) can include:
§
Relying on computer networking technologies – so as
to make it capable of instant updating, storage/retrieval,
distribution and sharing of instruction or information.
§
Delivering to the learner via a computer that is
connected to standard Internet technologies. However, there is much
debate over the interpretation of the term “computer” and what it
actually refers to.
§
Focussing on the broadest view of learning. That is
to say, it considers learning solutions that go beyond the traditional
paradigms of training. E-Learning moves beyond training to include the
delivery of information and tools that improve performance and
competitiveness within the job market.
Training Magazine’s 1999 statistics (Industry
Report 1999) demonstrate that companies are shifting some of their
training investments away from on-site classrooms. There appears to be
growing evidence that in the future, changes to business, society,
general attitudes towards learning and the application of technology
will limit the effectiveness of traditional learning/training.
Providing effective futuristic learning solutions requires a shift in
attitudes and perceptions – including:
§
Focussing on outcomes – Learning solutions need to
make a positive impact on learners’ performance and work-readiness.
§
Providing flexible access (anytime/anywhere) –
Knowledge solutions must meet the diverse needs of learners concerning
time frames and locations.
§
Placing emphasis on online rather than paper-based
delivery
§
Shifting the focus from physical facilities to
networked facilities – Networked solutions for knowledge delivery
(Internet or Intranet) play a significant role in information sharing,
communications, and flexible access to learning material from any
location in real time.
§
Facilitating real time rather than cyclic learning
– Today, the pace of change is extraordinary and the cycle time
concerning knowledge is short. There is a need for improved learning
efficiency and pace.
It has to be emphasised once more, that there is an
enduring and important role for traditional classroom instruction (Asgarkhani
2003). Those who believe technology will eventually replace highly
skilled teachers within classrooms of highly motivated learners are as
misguided as those who consider the Internet as a phenomenon that can
be overlooked as its impact will diminish over time.
There has been much debate over the potential
benefits and drawbacks where web-assisted learning is concerned (Asgarkhani
2003, Rosenberg 2001, Kruse 2002b, Kruse 2002c, Sitze 2001 and Burns
et al 2001). Some of the more obvious advantages and disadvantages are
outlined in Table 1.
Table 1: Benefits and
Drawbacks of e-Learning
|
Potential Benefits
(Solution Provider) |
Potential Benefits
(Learner) |
Potential Drawbacks
(Solution Provider) |
Potential Drawbacks
(Learner) |
|
Reduced overall costs
Reduced learning time
Consistent delivery of materials
Expert knowledge can be communicated and
captured with effective e-Learning and knowledge management
systems
Proof of completion and certification |
On-demand availability
Self-pacing
Interactivity
Availability of newly updated material in a
timely fashion
|
The need for up-front investment
Technology complexities and design
Educators’ workload
The need for selecting appropriate content
and effective instructional design
Cultural acceptance
|
The need for access to technology
The need for printed workbooks or reference
material
Reduced social and cultural interaction
|
Over the
past few years, there has been much debate over the effectiveness of
e-Learning. Many people (e.g. Rosenberg 2001)
consider technology-based learning disappointing at its best - as they
argue that its impact has been relatively minimal. Others (Kiser 2001,
Dobbs 2000, and Kruse 2002a) argue that the benefits of e-Learning
outweigh its drawbacks.
The perceived importance of digital learning has
motivated some governments to develop national guidelines and
strategies for introducing e-Learning solutions (e.g. New Zealand
e-Learning Advisory Group 2002).
Recently, there has been much debate with regards
to the state of the e-Learning industry (e.g. Dobbs 2000, Industry
Report 1999, Kaeter 2000, and Kiser 2001). Overall, e-Learning appears
to be taking root in organisations of all sizes - even though there
are often different views concerning the ways in which e-Learning can
benefit individuals or organisations.
The International Data Corporation (IDC) and Online
Learning Magazine (OLM) recently examined the general attitudes
towards e-Learning - as expressed by a group of OLM readers about
training within organisations (Kiser 2001). According to this
research, those people who have been responsible for the
implementation of e-Learning solutions seem to be pleased with the
results (80% of the respondents used some form of e-Learning and there
were indications that this percentage will increase - as more than 40
percent of the respondents whose employers had not yet adopted
e-Learning were apparently planning to do so within the next two
years). Research by the IDC has shown convenience as being one of the
most important reasons for employees for using e-Learning.
Furthermore, recent studies of learners’ attitudes
towards e-Learning within tertiary educational institutions (e.g.
Burns et al 2001, Asgarkhani 2003) indicated that there is an
increasing demand for web-assisted courses. A recent pilot study of
trends and attitudes within the CPIT in Christchurch, New Zealand (Asgarkhani
2003) suggested that in general, there is an increasing interest in
the application of e-Learning (despite the fact that most of their
learning still happens in the classroom). Even though the results of
this study are not considered as being final, it appears that the
demand for quality web-assisted courses with multifaceted
person-to-person interaction will increase rapidly in the near future.
Within the information society, the world of
knowledge management and learning seems to be focussed on two
concepts: Knowledge Management (henceforth abbreviated as KM) and
Digital (Electronic) Learning.
KM is not easy to define. However, it can be viewed
as a methodology for the acquisition, retention, storage, distribution
and use of knowledge. Rosenberg (Rosenberg 2001) describes KM as a
tool for supporting the creation, archiving,
and sharing of valued information, expertise, and insight within and
across communities of people and organizations with similar interests
and needs.
Today, numerous KM systems are facilitated by
web-based solutions and technologies. However, it should be noted that
KM is as much about people, working relationships, and communication.
KM is best represented as a
cross-disciplinary domain (Putzhuber 2003) which can relate to a wide
range of disciplines and technologies – some of which can include:
§
Cognitive Science
§
Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems and
knowledge based management systems (KBMS)
§
Groupware
§
Library and Information Science
§
Technical Writing
§
Document Management
§
Semantic Networks
§
Relational and Object-Oriented Databases
§
Simulation
§
Management of Information
§
Management of People
There often seems to be confusion with reference to
the terms information and knowledge – which obscures the
fact that while it can be extremely easy and quick to transfer
information from one place to another, it is often very difficult and
slow to transfer knowledge from one person to another. In attempting
to understand knowledge it would be beneficial to consider that
the human mind often deals with two kinds of knowledge: the
rational and the intuitive. The way in which we view
knowledge today has been significantly transformed – largely due to
the extended accessibility of know-how through advanced ICT
solutions.
Knowledge
is more than what someone knows. It's also what the organization
knows-gathered from internal and external sources throughout years and
decades. Knowledge can be:
§
Explicit – can be
easily described and specific enough to be documented and applied in
educating/training.
§
Tacit - harder to
record and difficult to document or teach to others (heuristics often
embedded in people's experiences and life's work). This is often the
most elusive and most valuable type of knowledge.
Different
types of knowledge require different approaches to KM. Each presents
unique challenges and opportunities.
Rosenberg’s (Rosenberg 2001) review of some KM systems/solutions and a
review of other studies (Hsieh et al 2003, Zyngier 2003, and
Asgarkhani 2003a) indicate that KM can be divided into three layers:
§
Layer 1:
Document management – The earliest form of KM has been the use of
technology in order to retrieve and access documentation. Today, it is
common for organizations to provide access to documents, reports, and
forms online.
§
Layer 2:
Information creation, sharing, and management - This is where
people contribute information to the system, creating new content and
growing the knowledge base. That is to say, users are encouraged to
read documents, fill forms, and submit forms online. This would allow
for the information to be continually updated
§
Layer 3:
Organization or enterprise intelligence – The ultimate in KM is
the development of a robust and interactive KM system so as to
accurately represent the organizational "know-how."
As KM
solutions are introduced, it is inevitable that we observe changes in
the ways in which people learn and work together.
Figure 1:
The Knowledge Management Hierarchy
Web-assisted course management tools are often
viewed as KM tools (Asgarkhani 2003). However, the concept of KM is
different from e-Learning. Even though e-Learning could potentially be
a cornerstone of KM, there is little evidence that e-Learning
organizations have identified the need for and mastered the theory and
practice of KM.
e-Learning and KM seem to focus on different goals
(Putzhuber 2003, Asgarkhani 2003a). E-Learning systems appear to help
learners in expanding their knowledge through providing structured
learning content and intercommunication facilities to specific topics.
In contrast, most KM systems provide knowledge by using content
management systems with search and sort facilities.
Common characteristics of e-Learning and KM can
include:
§
Both e-Learning and KM systems provide knowledge in
different forms to the users.
§
The system architecture (client-server-architecture
with high complexity in the server-part) is almost the same for both
systems.
§
Both e-Learning and KM need to provide
communication and cooperation facilities.
§
Personalization (role-based or person oriented)
plays an important role in both e-Learning and KM.
§
Both approaches need to consider access regulation
(group or person specific).
Today, there is an increasing interest to bridge
the gap (differences) that currently exists between e-Learning and KM.
The
potential implications of KM for e-Learning can be significant. For
instance, rather than relying on instruction, we can use well
structured information (as well as productivity enhancing tools) to
help people learn and improve their performance. We can differentiate
between skills that must be performed automatically from information
that can be accessed or referenced when needed. We may not have to
teach people the steps in for example a
sales process; we may only have to teach people where to find the
steps.
It is fair
to say that developing strategies for e-Learning cannot be carried out
in isolation. Any strategic framework for introducing digital learning
needs to address KM alongside that of developing e-Learning solutions
(see section 6).
Today, access to information and communication
technologies (ICTs) is critical for economic and social development.
Developing effective digital learning and KM solutions depend on the
state of the ICT industry and electronic readiness (e-readiness) where
it concerns countries, organizations, societies and so on (e.g.
Information Society Index 2001, OECD Workshop 2000, META Group 2000
and Asgarkhani 2002b).
Overall, differences in diffusion and use of ICTs
and electronic networks can lead to:
§
Divides between countries
§
Social divides within countries
§
Divides within countries related to income,
education, age, family type, and location
§
Business divides related to sector, region, and
firm size
There has been much debate over the implications of
digital divide on e-Learning and KM. In November 2001, the global
communications company Marconi (Marconi 2001) called on government and
private stakeholders in South Africa to accelerate the introduction of
e-Learning centres in remote, rural and disadvantaged areas -
suggesting that economic and educational benefits would have an
immediate and measurable impact on poverty in South Africa. Higgins
(Higgins 2002) views
e- learning as a tool that can play a significant role in bridging the
digital divide in the APEC region.
However, the digital
divide can also be considered as a barrier to successful rollout of
e-Learning and KM solutions.
Some of the causes of digital divide that can also
limit successful implementation of e-Learning and KM solutions can
include:
§
Lack of telecommunications and network
infrastructure
§
Limited PC access
§
Lack of financial resources for developing an
infrastructure
§
Lack of ICT literacy
§
Limited Internet access
§
Cultural resistance
§
High access costs to global networks and the
Internet
§
High cost of business investment
§
Strategic business impediments – applicability; the
need to reorganise; the need for skills, security and privacy
considerations
6.
The need for a strategic foundation
6.1
Assessing the effectiveness/success
While the impact of e-Learning within the academic
and the professional world can be widespread, it is essential to
monitor and assess the success/effectiveness of e-Learning projects.
e-Learning success can be measured with reference
to either financial indicators or academic achievements. Some of the
parameters that can be taken into consideration when measuring the
success and effectiveness of e-Learning include:
§
financial indicators such as return on investment (ROI),
increased revenue, cost savings and total cost of ownership
§
learners’ achievements including comparison with
other learning tools.
§
functionality and best practice
§
scalability and support resources
6.2
Potential causes of problems
While there are many case studies and success
stories (with regards to e-Learning and KM), there are equally
examples and cases where e-Learning and KM solutions have proved
inadequate (e.g. Rosenberg 2001).
Typical causes of failure (Rosenberg 2001, Sun
2003, Asgarkhani 2003a and Galloway et al 2002) can include:
§
lack of familiarity with proper applications and
requirements of digital learning
§
underestimating the resources and expertise that
are required
§
overestimating what can be accomplished through
digital learning
§
lack of understanding of the functionality and the
tools that are available
§
overlooking the potential problems of self-learning
§
overemphasizing technological aspects of digital
learning
§
inappropriate content planning and design
§
authenticity of the solutions (programs) that are
being offered
§
lack of standards for digital learning solutions
§
different requirements by different learners – “one
size does not fit all”
§
lack of support
§
learners’ resistance to adopt digital learning
culture
§
lack of creativity in order to motivate online
self-learners
6.3
Digital divide
Today, access to information and communication
technologies (ICTs) is critical for economic and social development.
Developing effective digital learning and KM solutions depend on the
state of the ICT industry and electronic readiness (e-readiness) where
it concerns countries, organizations, societies and so on (e.g.
Information Society Index 2001, OECD Workshop 2000, META Group 2000
and Asgarkhani 2002b).
Overall, differences in diffusion and use of ICTs
and electronic networks can lead to:
§
Divides between countries
§
Social divides within countries
§
Divides within countries related to income,
education, age, family type, and location
§
Business divides related to sector, region, and
firm size
There has been much debate over the implications of
digital divide on e-Learning and KM. In November 2001, the global
communications company Marconi (Marconi 2001) called on government and
private stakeholders in South Africa to accelerate the introduction of
e-Learning centres in remote, rural and disadvantaged areas -
suggesting that economic and educational benefits would have an
immediate and measurable impact on poverty in South Africa. Higgins
(Higgins 2002) views
e- learning as a tool that can play a significant role in bridging the
digital divide in the APEC region.
However, the digital
divide can also be considered as a barrier to successful rollout of
e-Learning and KM solutions.
Some of the causes of digital divide that can also
limit successful implementation of e-Learning and KM solutions can
include:
§
Lack of telecommunications and network
infrastructure
§
Limited PC access
§
Lack of financial resources for developing an
infrastructure
§
Lack of ICT literacy
§
Limited Internet access
§
Cultural resistance
§
High access costs to global networks and the
Internet
§
High cost of business investment
§
Strategic business impediments – applicability; the
need to reorganise; the need for skills, security and privacy
considerations
6.4
The need for strategic thinking
As we can observe (e.g. see sections 6.2 and 6.3),
even though technology is a major component of e-Learning and KM,
improving technology and infrastructure is not sufficient to produce
outcomes of a high quality – as the components and relationships
within today’s information society are complex. The development and
delivery of quality e-Learning and KM solutions needs to be viewed as
a holistic process, whereby a strategic foundation is developed in
order to optimize the application of technology by giving
consideration to many aspects of the digital delivery of knowledge
such as digital divide, culture, social trends and so on. The process
for strategic development of digital learning and KM must also
consider critical success factors that have been widely discussed over
the past few years (Kruse 2002d, Gallagher et al 2002, Hsieh 2003,
Rosenberg 2001, and Rossett 2002) – which can include:
§
establishing a culture of support for ongoing
learning
§
ensuring support from management
§
deploying a nurturing business model
§
sustaining the change throughout the organisation
Today, it is essential that we view learning needs
in a much broader context – one that includes:
§
learning as the growth of the intellectual capital
of corporations and societies
§
learning as enabling higher individual and
organisational performance
A strategy that is developed for e-Learning and KM
needs to be examined, pilot tested and put in practice at a rate that
technology develops and the Internet grows.
Any strategic framework for introducing e-Learning
and KM solutions needs to be concerned with the overall direction of
digital learning and KM whilst providing a foundation for tactical and
operational issues. A review of some of the most widely used
frameworks for strategy development (Robson 1997, Asgarkhani 2002a,
Boar 2001, Heath 2003, and Rossett 2002) suggests that it (the
process) should consist of at least three specific components/phases:
Analysis, Choice and Implementation.
The total strategic process for e-Learning/KM is
anything but linear. Integrating all the components of the strategic
process is cyclic – often circling back to itself. The key elements of
this cycle (as outlined in Figure 2) are:
§
Strategic Analysis –
involves establishing an understanding of the current situation,
including: aspects of the environment; current technology
infrastructure; available resources; expectations; broad objectives;
and power bases.
§
Strategic Choice –
involves the formulation of the strategy itself through understanding
various options, evaluating options and making a decision on a
suitable strategy.
§
Strategy Implementation
– involves tactical issues such as resource assessment and planning,
identifying human resources and systems, contents, determining
organizational structure and so forth.
The first
two stages of the strategy cycle outlined in Figure 2 should ideally
result in the formulation of a strategy plan. The strategy plan can
often be formulated as a hierarchy that clearly outlines the various
stages (components) of the strategy process for e-Learning or KM –
Figure 3.
The
components of the strategy plan often include (but may not be limited
to):
§
Mission -
What are we planning to do with e-Learning and KM
solutions?
§
Goal(s) – What are we
trying to achieve?
§
Strategies - What
alternative pathways are available to us – in order to achieve agreed
upon goals?
§
Policies - How should
we be guiding our moves within a selected pathway in order to achieve
goals?
§
Decisions - What
alternative options for moves should be considered?
§
Action - This is the
way we will implement our decision for introducing e-Learning and/or
KM solutions.
Figure 2:
The Cycle of Strategy Development and Implementation
for e-Learning and Knowledge Management
Figure 3:
The Hierarchy of Strategy Development for e-Learning and KM
Alternatively, the strategy cycle can help in establishing a
foundation for successful development and delivery of web-assisted
learning and KM – as displayed in Figure 4. As you can observe, Figure
4 depicts the critical components for successful e-Learning,
including:
§
Reviewing/reinventing the position of e-Learning –
e.g. determining if Web-assisted solutions are to be introduced as a
supplement to face-to-face communication between students and
educators/trainers, or whether Web-based learning through the Internet
is to be the sole medium for delivery.
§
Compiling a sound business case for delivering
on-line learning and KM solutions – more specifically, linking
e-Learning goals with business goals
§
Fostering an environment that balances learner and
business needs in order to guarantee management support
§
Allowing for an effective change management
approach
§
Establishing an information vision and architecture
that would form the basis of the infrastructure (technological
capabilities) needed in order to deliver and manage e-Learning and
supporting KM solutions. This would require involvement from ICT
technologists in order to develop an understanding of baseline
technologies.
§
Taking into consideration alternative approaches to
e-Learning (and KM) and the ways in which e-Learning can be
co-ordinated with other learning methods – including the enduring and
important role for traditional classroom instruction.
There are a number of key questions that can be
considered in order to facilitate the strategy development (as
outlined in Figures 1, 2 and 3). These can include:
§
What are our reasons for pursuing digital learning
and KM?
§
Are we aware of our limitations and the challenges
ahead of us?
§
What is our clear vision for digital KM and/or
digital learning?
§
What are the priorities that we have considered?
§
What types of e-Learning or KM are we ready for?
§
What specific KM solutions/strategies suit our
choice of digital learning?
§
Do we have a methodology for selecting, planning
and managing e-Learning and/or KM projects?
§
Did we consider a thorough plan for managing
change?
§
What are the tools and metrics that we have thought
of in order to be able to measure progress/success?
§
What would be a model (methodology) for managing
relationships with other institutions when considering potential
strategic partnerships?
§
How would our e-Learning and KM model improve the
overall process of learning and KM?
To conclude, strategy development and
implementation is an ongoing process. A strategy plan is considered to
be a living document. It needs to be:
§
redefined and adjusted as the environment and
requirements change or new technological options become available, and
§
examined on an ongoing basis against the mission
and vision of your institution (a solution provider or a learners’
institution)
To ignore the iterative nature of any strategy
would eventually compromise the quality of the outcome.
Figure 4: A Strategic
Foundation for e-Learning and KM
7.
Summary and conclusions
Educators and educational technologists evidently
believe that we are witnessing a major shift in attitudes towards
learning and knowledge management. The ICT and web-based solutions
have fundamentally altered the technological, social and economic
landscape so as to make it possible for quantum leaps to be made in
the application of technology for learning and KM.
Overall (see section 2.4), it appears that there is
an increasing interest in the application of e-Learning within
organisations. However the potential benefits of e-Learning (see
section 2.3) and KM can only materialize when the solutions are
introduced as part of a well-planned and properly supported
education/training environment.
Technical innovation on its own is not enough to
drive the e-Learning and the KM development process (as discussed in
sections 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4). More specifically, access to the right
technology for delivering learning and KM solutions is essential but
insufficient. Successful Internet-enabled (or Web-enabled) learning
needs to be reliant on the development of a strategy that optimises
the application of technology through giving consideration to learning
attitudes in potential markets (e.g. tertiary educational market and
corporate training market); organisational culture; organisational
business strategies and so on. Furthermore, an effective e-Learning/KM
strategy must give consideration to critical success factors such as
establishing a culture of support for on | 
